KNOX THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
CHURCH ISSUES
IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FINAL PAPER
UNDERSTANDING
THE PHYSIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSION OF PORNOGRAPHY ADDICTION
SUBMITTED TO
DR. TIM SANSBURY
IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF
DM928 CHURCH
ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (SP2024)
BY
DOUGLAS
ROTHAUSER
May 2, 2024
WORD COUNT: 3398
According to a recent AFA journal article, 68% of church-going men and over 50% of pastors view porn regularly. Perhaps even more disturbing, the average age of child porn exposure is 11, and 10% of those 12 to 13 are already obsessed with pornography.[1] In addition, 20% of church-going women report they struggle with pornography.[2] In a survey conducted by Josh McDowell, only 9% of church attendees and 7% of pastors reported that their church has a program or response to address the problem of pornography addiction.[3] This is evidence that in many churches, there does not seem to be a sense of urgency to confront this soul-crushing issue, and when it does, it tends to write it off as simply a sin issue causing more shame and isolation. Thus, it is not a surprise that many Christians remain defeated in their battle with pornography. In this paper, I will argue that pornography addiction is not only a sin issue, but it is, at the same time, a mental health issue, which requires a thorough understanding of the underlying physical and psychological factors that drive this compulsive behavior. To that end, I will show how the field of cognitive neuroscience can be marshaled along with psychology guided by mature and compassionate Christians to provide a comprehensive approach to helping people gain victory over pornography addiction.
In the 1980s, the iconic anti-drug commercial “Your Brain on Drugs” depicted a man frying an egg, symbolizing the brain, to illustrate the damaging effects of drug addiction on the brain. This fearful imagery emphasized that regular drug use can lead to significant brain damage. Similarly, so can pornography. Cognitive neuroscientists using advanced neuroimaging technology like fMRI have discovered that regular consumption of pornography, also known as problematic pornography use (PPU), causes structural changes in brain physiology that severely limit its natural ability to regulate the neural mechanisms that govern healthy behavior.[4] In addition to demonstrating the harmful physical effects of PPU, cognitive neuroscientists can also harness this technology to help behaviorists discover and treat its underlying causes.
When it comes to understanding mental health disorders such as PPU, the traditional approach was based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which focused more on symptoms rather than underlying causes.[5] With the advent of advanced neuroimaging technologies such as fMRI, neuroscientists now have the ability to examine mental disorders at the biophysical level. To that end, they have devised an alternative to DSM known as Research Domain Criteria, or RDC[6]. With RDC, scientists now have a framework to understand mental disorders as brain disorders.
Of particular interest in the study of PPU, as well as other compulsive disorders, is the domain known as “negative valence systems.” Negative valence systems encompass a set of negative emotional experiences, including fear, anxiety, loss, and “frustative nonreward.”[7] Although fear is listed separately, it lies at the root of all these emotions. Understanding the role of fear in these systems is critical to our understanding of PPU and other compulsive disorders.
Fear is an instinctive emotion intricately woven into our brain’s physiology by God to shield us from harm and is activated when we do not feel safe and secure. With the help of modern neuroscience, we now have the ability to see how God designed this irreducibly complex organ and how it operates to process the neural stimuli involved in the fear response.
The brain has a system for responding to fear that involves three main components: the amygdala, the hippocampus (part of the limbic system), and the prefrontal cortex. The limbic system plays a crucial role at the instinctual level in regulating various aspects of behavior and emotions. It encompasses a range of functions, including managing and controlling emotions, creating and storing memories, regulating sexual arousal, and facilitating learning and decision-making processes. The limbic system is an integral part of the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary body functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, breathing rate, and eye dilation.[8]
The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped bundle of neurons located in the medial temporal lobe inside the brain. It integrates sensory experience with emotion. In perceived threatening situations that prompt a negative emotion such as fear or anxiety, the amygdala physiologically triggers one of the behavioral responses known as fight-flight-freeze-fawn, also known as the “4 Fs”[9] The fight response causes one to confront the threat aggressively. The flight response causes the person to flee from the danger. The freeze response manifests in the person unconsciously disengaging from the situation. The fawn response results in the person taking immediate steps to placate the threatening actor(s) to avoid any conflict.
The hippocampus, as its etymology suggests, resembles a seahorse and is situated in the inner (medial) region of the temporal lobe, near the amygdala. It is primarily associated with new memory formation and works in conjunction with the amygdala to persist the memory of emotional experiences, both positive and negative, in the prefrontal cortex[10]. Psychologists call these types of memories “episodic memories,” and the more significant or emotional they are, the easier they are to recall.[11]
The prefrontal cortex consists of several regions[12], but the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is the one most involved in storing and replaying memories originating in the hippocampus. Recent research has shown that memories encoded in the hippocampus are not simply replicated in the medial prefrontal cortex but are assimilated into preexisting neocortical[13] memory networks of knowledge called schemas. A schema is a mutable composition of related memories that share similar contexts, such as emotional circumstances, geographic locations, scents, ambiances, and personalities, all of which facilitate context-guided memory retrieval.[14] This explains why the context related to the memory of a negative emotional experience might trigger a 4F response even in the absence of an imminent threat.
Up to this point,
our discussion has been limited to the anatomical parts of the brain involved
in the circuitry of the fear response system. Next, we will shift our attention
to the neurochemicals and neurotransmitters the body produces during negative
emotional experiences that cause one of the 4F behavioral responses.
As mentioned
previously, a 4F response begins in the amygdala and signals the hypothalamus,
which then activates the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is the nexus
between the nervous system and the endocrine system (the system that regulates
hormone production). The pituitary gland then secretes adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) into the blood, which causes the sympathetic nervous system (the
division of the nervous system that activates the 4 Fs) to release doses of epinephrine
and norepinephrine (adrenaline) and the hormone cortisol or corticosteroids
into the bloodstream. These neurochemical messengers are responsible for a host
of sensory and motor responses that include: increased
blood pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar levels, rapid breathing, releasing
fat for energy, dilated pupils to see the threat more clearly, and reduced
activity in the stomach and intestines, which might cause the phenomenon of butterflies
in the stomach. [15] (Note that many of these biological responses
are associated with the symptoms of many anxiety/fear-based mental health disorders
as defined by the DSM.[16])
During times of
prolonged fear and anxiety, people often turn to something that will take the
edge off, such as sugary foods, alcohol, drugs, or pornography. This is where
the brain’s reward system comes in. This reward system involves the amygdala,
the nucleus accumbens, and the prefrontal cortex and
is activated by the neurotransmitter dopamine. They all work together to help
the brain remember important or pleasurable things for future use or enjoyment.[17]
Dopamine are neurons that are synthesized in a part of the midbrain known as the ventral tegmental area (VTA).[18] Unlike other neurotransmitters that send signals between specific neurons, dopamine is referred to as a neuromodulator because it changes how other neurons act in several parts of the brain, mainly the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and the nucleus accumbens. It plays an important role in the brain’s reward system, which is integral to the process of learning through trial and error, also known as “reinforcement learning.”[19] When one experiences something novel that pleasantly exceeds expectations, the hypothalamus releases dopamine into the aforementioned areas of the brain, which feels good and causes a desire to experience that same thing in the future. Conversely, when one experiences something negative, for example, an emotion associated with the negative valence systems, such as fear or anxiety, dopamine levels drop.[20] As we study dopamine’s role in the brain’s reward system, it is important to note that dopamine is responsible for desiring a rewarding experience, while other systems, such as the opioid or endocannabinoid systems, are responsible for liking the experience. Next, we will explore how dopamine affects each of these brain regions and how frequent releases, high releases, or both alter the brain's structure and function and, as a result, are implicated in impulse control disorders and addictions.
The nucleus accumbens, a
part of the ventral striatum of the basal ganglia, is particularly important in
the brain's reward system.
Neuroscientists using fMRI have shown that the nucleus accumbens
is especially active when it receives dopamine neurons[21] from the ventral tegmental area (VTA)
through a major dopaminergic pathway known as the mesolimbic pathway (also
known as the reward pathway). The nucleus accumbens
is also known as the “pleasure center” [22] because, when activated, it can produce a
range of good feelings ranging from mild pleasantness and satisfaction to
ecstasy and exhilaration, especially in the case of pornography use.[23]
As previously noted,
the amygdala integrates sensory experience with emotion, and it plays a key
role in the 4F responses. However, not only is it involved in the brain’s fear
circuit but in its reward circuit too. When dopamine is released into the
amygdala, it not only causes memories of the reward (euphoric recall?) but also,
at various conscious levels, the context surrounding those memories (queues?). In
the case of PPU, the dopamine-infused amygdala will elicit memories of the primary
reward, viewing erotic material and, concomitantly, the situations and means of
obtaining it. This is where the negative
valence systems described in the RDC and the rewards
response system find their common ground. For instance, negative emotions such
as fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustrative nonreward, and
stress can trigger an intense desire to use pornography detached from the act
of viewing pornography.[24]
The prefrontal
cortex, a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, is widely recognized
for its critical involvement in various high-order cognitive processes. These
processes include but are not limited to decision-making, reasoning,
personality expression, and social cognition.[25] The release of dopamine into portions of the
prefrontal cortex aids in the learning process, reinforcing and solidifying the
behavior circuits involved in the pursuit and acquisition of a reward. The more
the prefrontal cortex is exposed to the dopamine associated with the prospect
of experiencing a reward, the more its behavior circuitry mutates to be
predisposed toward the desire to pursue and acquire the reward. Thus, the more
exposure, the more desire. This is generally not a bad thing; for example, the
more one is exposed to an image of a sumptuous meal or the sensation of a
hunger pang, the more desire there will be to attain it. However, in the case
of PPU, the more one is exposed to pornography, the more one will desire to
pursue it and the more challenging it will be to discontinue its consumption.[26] Note that neuroimaging shows that the
prefrontal cortex, in terms of its structure, does not reach maturity until
early adulthood[27]. This has profound negative implications
for children and young adults who have been exposed to pornography at an early age.
A crucial facet of the
brain’s reward system involves a set of mechanisms known as “neural
plasticity.” Sometimes referred to as “Hebbian plasticity,” the concept was
developed by the neuroscientist Daniel Hebb in 1949. It refers to the fact that
every memory, no matter how insignificant, leaves an imprint on the structure
and function of the brain.[28] When a pleasurable, dopamine-releasing
experience is repeated over and over, the imprint becomes deeper and more
ingrained in the structures or schemas that govern memory. That is because when
neurons across these various regions of the brain fire together as a result of a dopamine release, the connections
(synapses) between them become stronger and tighter, hence the expression,
"neurons that fire together, wire together." In addition, as the
connections get stronger, the neuronal response levels become stronger as well. [29]
It cannot be
understated how important the role of dopamine on neural plasticity is in
understanding the nature of pornography addiction. Over time, the brain’s
reward circuits become accustomed to a basal secretion rate of dopamine. Upon
encountering novel or unexpected stimuli in the environment, the brain releases
a surge of dopamine that elicits heightened pleasure and raises the basal
secretion rate. As the brain’s circuits become habituated to this increased
level of dopamine, the threshold for experiencing the same level of reward
increases, necessitating another novel experience to attain the desired level
of reward, explaining why people addicted to pornography constantly seek new
and more extreme material to achieve their desired level of pleasure.[30]
Where plasticity
occurs in the brain depends on which system is activated at the time of the
neural stimuli. The process of recalling and replaying “episodic memories” (discussed
earlier)[31], including those associated with the negative
valence systems that trigger one of the 4 F behaviors, is attributed to
plasticity in the hippocampus. On the other hand, the brain’s reward system is
associated with plasticity in the basal ganglia[32], in which the nucleus accumbens
(the pleasure center) plays a significant role in remembering the types of things
that engender pleasurable experiences.
As researchers seek
to understand the physiological and psychological causes of PPU, studies have
shown that subjects with PPU exhibit higher traits of anxiety.[33] Anxiety is a fear-based emotion that is
activated when one senses an impending threat that might jeopardize their
safety and security. When anxiety or any other fear-based emotion is especially
traumatic or becomes chronic, the neural circuits associated with the fear
response system become deeply ingrained or plasticized. This means that the
neurons in crucial parts of the limbic system are constantly firing together
and wiring together, thus strengthening their connections. As a result, one or
more of the 4F responses—fight, flight, freeze, or fawn—may be triggered
frequently. These responses are euphemistically types of rewards (they are
really coping mechanisms) used to bring dopamine levels back to their current
basal rate to quell the unwanted emotion. In the case of PPU, pornography use
is a type of freeze response that uses pornography to alleviate the physiological
effects of anxiety or one of the other fear-based emotions. But it gets even
more problematic. During times of stress, the autonomic nervous system releases
neurochemicals, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline), and the
hormones cortisol or corticosteroids, into the body causing an indirect
synergistic effect on dopamine release. In fact, when the brain’s reward system is activated during stress,
dopamine level surges above the basal rate, whereas in tranquil times, it does
not. This physiological phenomenon is particularly challenging for individuals
struggling with addiction, as any kind of stressful situation can trigger
relapse even after long periods of abstinence.[34]
The area of the
brain that has yet to receive much attention is the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It
consists of three major subregions: the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). The mPFC is selectively
involved in the retrieval of remote long-term memory (discussed previously) and
is also linked to decision-making mediation. The dlPFC
is predominantly involved in cognitive control and executive processing. The vmPFC plays a crucial role in emotional processing, such as
“extinction,” which refers to the gradual decrease in the expression of conditioned
fear responses.[35] Together, they synergistically interact to
provide highly developed reasoning faculties, emotional regulation, and self-awareness.[36]
Ironically, the
prefrontal cortex’s decision-making capabilities lead to its eventual demise
when it learns that a euphoric type of reward is an effective way to soothe
negative emotions during times of stress and anxiety. Cognitive neuroscience
using fMRI has shown that habitual pornography use decreases functional
connectivity between the ventral striatum (an integral part of the reward
system that includes the nucleus accumbens) and the prefrontal
cortex.[37] When the brain’s reward system is
constantly stimulated by floods of dopamine, the neural pathways between the
ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex become so impaired that the prefrontal
cortex’s decision-making capability becomes virtually powerless to resist the
reward or choose a healthy alternative. In fact, at the time when dopamine is
released in large amounts, the reasoning ability provided by the prefrontal
cortex diminishes to the point where it is rendered incapable of harnessing its
analytical abilities to reason about the origins of the negative emotional
experiences that trigger fear responses (such as flight, fight, freeze, fawn)
that in turn trigger hyper-pleasurable maladaptive coping rewards like
pornography. This pattern is evident in Christian men who, in their effort to
resist the compulsion to act out sexually with pornography and then give in,
will say when it is over, “What was I thinking?” That is the problem – they
weren’t thinking.[38]
At this point, it
might appear that the brain’s wiring has been so severely compromised that it
is incapable of being fixed. But that is not the case. The same prefrontal
cortex that reasoned that a way to feel safe in the jungle of unwanted negative
emotions is to seek refuge in pornography is the same prefrontal cortex that has the ability to reason that there are better ways. However,
for that to happen, a lot of pain and suffering will be necessary. When one
stops using pornography, he or she will have no choice but to confront the
negative, uncomfortable emotions they have been avoiding and deal with them
without the assistance of pornography.[39] Instead, they will need to harness more
than ever the mind’s reasoning powers provided by the prefrontal cortex. Biblically,
they will need to renew their mind.[40]
When a person
decides to quit using pornography, one of the most important initial steps they
must take is to commit to a program of sobriety for at least ninety days or
more. It will take that long to reset the brain’s dopamine basal rate to more
normal levels. This is a monumental task that takes more than simple willpower
or “white knuckling.” White knuckling is a term used to describe the act of
exerting control over one’s negative emotions, which is often what led the
person to become addicted to pornography in the first place. It may lead to less
sin, but less sin does not necessarily lead to better mental health. It is a
way of avoiding the difficult work of facing the complexities of life head-on
and disentangling them. During the process of recovery, a person must critically
examine their life and honestly explore the memories associated with their
childhood, young adulthood, family, friends, career, romantic relationships,
marriage, and other experiences.[41] This step can be
difficult and painful because when the brain begins to rewire itself, there
will be withdrawal symptoms similar to any other
substance abuse withdrawal, both physiological and psychological. There will be
actual changes in brain chemistry that will affect mood. As this paper labored to
show, extensive pornography use over many years, even perhaps
since childhood, rewires and changes the structure of the brain.[42] Thus, the 80’s anti-drug commercial depicting
the frying pan (drugs or porn) frying an egg (your brain) is a pretty apt
analogy. Unlike the fried egg, a person’s brain can be repaired and rewired when
they set their mind on committing to lifelong sobriety with the help of their church
and, if necessary, other Christian ministries equipped to treat pornography
addiction at the physiological, psychological, spiritual, and social levels.
The study of neural anatomy is not merely a gratuitous exercise in deconstructing the sinful behavior of pornography addiction into physical parts and chemicals. Instead, it aims to unravel the physical aspects and biochemical mechanisms that contribute to the psychological and spiritual effects caused by sexual sin. Armed with a working knowledge of the physical effects of pornography and its effect on mental health, Christian leaders in the church, Christian counselors, and Christian ministries will be better equipped to provide more holistic approaches to people suffering from this pernicious addiction.
Denison, Mark. Porn in the Pew. Fort Worth, TX:
Austin Brothers Publishing, 2018.
Euston, David R., Aaron J. Gruber, Bruce L.
McNaughton. "The Role of Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Memory and Decision
Making." Neuron. December 20, 2012.
https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(12)01108-7 (accessed May 1,
2024).
Gola, Mateusz, Małgorzata Wordecha, Guillaume
Sescousse, Bartosz Kossowski, Marek Wypych, Scott Makeig, Marc N. Potenza,
Artur Marchewka. "Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men
Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use." Nature/Neuropsychopharmacology.
April 14, 2017. https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201778 (accessed April 24,
2024).
Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff. Pure Eyes - A Man's
Guide to Sexual Integrity. Kindle Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Publishing Group, 2010.
Grujičić, Roberto. "Prefrontal
cortex." KenHub. October 30, 2023.
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/prefrontal-cortex (accessed April 29,
2024).
Guy Evans, Olivia. "Amygdala Function and
Location." SimplyPsychology. December 14, 2023.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/amygdala.html (accessed April 25, 2024).
Guy-Evans, Olivia. "Hippocampus Function and
Location." SimplyPsychology. September 19, 2023.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/hippocampus.html (accessed April 25, 2024).
GuyEvans, Olivia. "What Is The Limbic System?
Definition, Parts, And Functions." SimplyPsychology. January 17,
2024. https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html (accessed April 30,
2024).
Hartley, C. A., and E. A. Phelps. "Changing Fear:
The Neurocircuitry of Emotion Regulation." Neuropsychopharmacology.
August 26, 2009. https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2009121 (accessed May 1,
2024).
Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
and Selections from a Treatise of Human Nature. Chicago: The Open Court
Publishing Co., 1921.
Josh McDowell Ministry. "The Porn Phenomenon -
The Impact of Pornography in the Digital Age." Barna Group. June
09, 2023. https://www.barna.com/the-porn-phenomenon/ (accessed April 22, 2024).
Luff, Steven, interview by Carl Thomas. "The
Brain and Addiction." Monthly RE:CHARGE. Live Free Ministries,
(August 1, 2022).
Meador, Hannah. "Porn and the Church." AFA
Journal. July 24, 2020.
https://www.afa.net/the-stand/family/2020/07/porn-and-the-church/ (accessed
April 22, 2024).
Nejati, Vahid, Reyhaneh Majdi, Mohammad Ali
Salehinejad, and Michael A. Nitsche. "The role of dorsolateral and
ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the processing of emotional dimensions."
nature.com Scientific Reports. January 21, 2021.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81454-7 (accessed May 1, 2024).
Newman, Tim. "Dissecting terror: How does fear
work?" Medical News Today. October 30, 2021.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323492 (accessed April 27, 2024).
Ocran, Edwin. "Nucleus accumbens." KenHub.
October 30, 2023.
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/nucleus-accumbens-en (accessed April
28, 2024).
Olivia, Guy-Evans. "What Is The Limbic System?
Definition, Parts, And Functions." SimplyPsychology. January 17,
2024. https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html (accessed April 30,
2024).
Olivine, Ashley. "What Is the Sympathetic Nervous
System?" Verywell Health. March 30, 2023.
https://www.verywellhealth.com/sympathetic-nervous-system-how-it-works-and-more-7107953
(accessed April 27, 2024).
Poldrack, Russell A. The New Mind Readers: What
Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2018.
Preston, Alison R., and Howard Eichenbaum.
"Interplay of Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex in Memory." Current
Biology, 2013: R764.
Thomas, Carl. "RE:CHARGE | Episode 42: The 1st 90
Days of Sobriety." Live Free Ministries. October 30, 2023.
https://www.livefree.app/posts/recharge-episode-42-the-1st-90-days-of-sobriety
(accessed May 2, 2024).
"Trauma Response (The 4 F’s – Fight, Flight,
Freeze, and Fawn)." Human Relations Institutes & Clinics. n.d.
https://www.hricdubai.com/trauma-response-the-4fs/ (accessed April 30, 2024).
[1] Porn and the Church. AFA Journal. July 24, 2020. https://www.afa.net/the-stand/family/2020/07/porn-and-the-church/ (accessed April 22, 202 4).
[2] Porn in the Pew, Denison, Mark (Fort Worth, TX: Austin Brothers Publishing, 2018), 19.
[3] Ibid. 55.
The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 158-159.
[4] Gola et al., “Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use,” (April 14, 2017), https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201778 (accessed April 24, 2024).
[5] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 158-159.
[6] Ibid. 160.
[7] Ibid. 161.
[8] GuyEvans, Olivia. "What Is The Limbic System? Definition, Parts, And Functions." (January 17, 2024), https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html (accessed April 30, 2024).
[9] "Trauma Response (The 4 F’s – Fight, Flight, Freeze, and Fawn)." Human Relations Institutes & Clinics. n.d. https://www.hricdubai.com/trauma-response-the-4fs/ (accessed April 30, 2024).
[10] Preston, Alison R., and Howard Eichenbaum. “Interplay of Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex in Memory.” Current Biology: CB 23, no. 17 (2013): R764. Accessed April 26, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.05.041.
[11] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 83.
[12] The others are the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (flPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)
[13] Relates to the neocortex which is the part of the human brain’s cerebral cortex thought to be the origin of higher cognitive functioning.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 79.; Newman, Tim. "Dissecting terror: How does fear work?" (October 30, 2021), https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323492 (accessed April 27, 2024); Olivine, Ashley. "What Is the Sympathetic Nervous System?" (March 30, 2023), https://www.verywellhealth.com/sympathetic-nervous-system-how-it-works-and-more-7107953 (accessed April 27, 2024).
[16] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 158-159.
[17] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 75.
[18] Ibid.
[19] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 11.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid., 103
[22] Ocran, Edwin. "Nucleus accumbens." (October 30, 2023), https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/nucleus-accumbens-en (accessed April 28, 2024);
[23] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 73.
[24] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 73-74, 76.
[25] Grujičić, Roberto. "Prefrontal cortex." (October 30, 2023), https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/prefrontal-cortex (accessed April 29, 2024).
[26] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 73-74, 75-76.
[27] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 83.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 76.
[31] The New Mind Readers: What Neuroimaging Can and Cannot Reveal about Our Thoughts, Poldrack, Russell A. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 83.
[32] Ibid.
[33] Gola et al., “Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use,” (April 14, 2017), https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201778 (accessed April 24, 2024).
[34] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 79-80.
[35] Hartley, Catherine A., and Elizabeth A. Phelps. "Changing Fear: The Neurocircuitry of Emotion Regulation." Neuropsychopharmacology 35, no. 1 (2010): 136-146. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.121.
[36] Euston, David R., Aaron J. Gruber, Bruce L. McNaughton. "The Role of Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Memory and Decision Making." Neuron. December 20, 2012. https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(12)01108-7 (accessed May 1, 2024); Nejati, Vahid, et.al., "The role of dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the processing of emotional dimensions." (January 21, 2021). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81454-7 (accessed May 1, 2024).
[37] Gola et al., “Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use,” (April 14, 2017), https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201778 (accessed April 24, 2024).
[38] Luff, Steven, interview by Carl Thomas. "The Brain and Addiction." Monthly RE:CHARGE. Live Free Ministries, (August 1, 2022), https://www.livefree.app/posts/recharge-episode-34-the-brain-and-addiction (accessed May 1, 2024).
[39] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 88-89.
[40] Romans 12:2
[41] Thomas, Carl. "RE:CHARGE | Episode 42: The 1st 90 Days of Sobriety." (October 30, 2023), https://www.livefree.app/posts/recharge-episode-42-the-1st-90-days-of-sobriety (accessed May 2, 2024).
[42] Pure Eyes - A Man's Guide to Sexual Integrity, Gross, Craig, and Steven Luff (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 89.